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    Home » Italian Food Tradition » History

    Ancient Roman Food And Recipes And Historical Sources

    Published: Sep 4, 2020 · Modified: Apr 9, 2025. This post may contain affiliate links. Please read my disclosure policy.

    To discover ancient roman food and recipes, we have two different sources: the oldest recipe book “De re coquinaria” written by Apicius and the food remains found during the excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum. So let's find out what Italian cuisine looked like during the Roman Empire.
    remains in Pompeii, from upmarket street food restaurants to downmarket ones, Cauponae (inn), Popina (wine bar, Pub) or Taberna (home kitchens opened to the street).
    Ancient Rome street food Taberne
    To discover ancient roman food and recipes, we have two different sources: the oldest recipe book “De re coquinaria” written by Apicius and the food remains found during the excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum. So let's find out what Italian cuisine looked like during the Roman Empire.
    To discover ancient roman food and recipes, we have two different sources: the oldest recipe book “De re coquinaria” written by Apicius and the food remains found during the excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum. So let's find out what Italian cuisine looked like during the Roman Empire.

    Ancient Roman food was a clear indicator of social standing. Wealthy Romans enjoyed elaborate meals made from sophisticated recipes, showcasing their kitchens' luxury and status. In contrast, the everyday meals of the lower classes and the poor were much simpler, clearly showing the social divide in Roman society. From lavish feasts in the homes of the rich to the basic meals of the working class, the cuisine of ancient Rome offers a glimpse into the diverse experiences of its inhabitants.

    ancient roman food remains in Pompeii
    Jump to:
    • Roman Meals
    • Rich people vs Poor people
    • Roman cooking book
    • Ancient Romans recipes
    • Roman ketchup: the Garum
    • Ingredients during the Roman Empire
    • Food remains found in Pompeii and Herculean
    • Roman recipes in modern time
    • Ancient roman bread
    • Restaurants during the Roman Empire
    • More historic facts

    Ancient Roman recipes have been revived after over 2000 years brought to us via two great sources: the ancient Roman cookbook “De re coquinaria” written by Apicius and the food remains found during the excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

    In this article, we will study how people ate in Roman times and the different eating habits between common folk and upper classes.

    I will share some recipes for ancient Roman food. Some of the ingredients were similar to those used in modern times, while others are so peculiar that we wouldn't even dare touch them.

    For more information about Roman markets and their food policies, read the articles: Trajan, Roman markets.

    If you want to know more about modern Italian cuisine and how it developed throughout history, you can read the article: Italian food history and cultural influences.

    De Res cuquinaria front page

    Roman Meals

    Roman daily eating began with breakfast (ientaculum), featuring simple foods like bread, honey, and cheese, and varied between adults and children.

    Midday meals (prandium) were light and often consumed at public spots or from street vendors, with a preference for fish, bread, and wine.

    The evening meal (vesperna) was the main meal of the day. It evolved significantly, especially post the Eastern conquests in the 2nd century BC, introducing new flavors.

    For the wealthy Romans, dinner was traditionally held in the atrium but later moved to the triclinium.

    It was the dining room symbolizing Roman dinner parties, the lavish banquets, where guests reclined on couches, surrounded by thematic décor featuring Dionysus, Venus and still lifes.

    You can find many similarity on how we structure our meals today in the article

    pompei family feast

    Rich people vs Poor people

    In ancient Roman society, the culinary habits and dining practices varied greatly between social classes.

    Wealthy Romans often enjoyed meals in the comfort of their lavish homes, reflecting their social status and the refined taste of ancient Rome.

    These wealthier Romans had access to a variety of ancient recipes, showcasing the richness of ancient Roman cuisine, which was influenced by both ancient Greek traditions and local innovations.

    On the other hand, the working class, including common people and poor Romans, had a different experience.

    Many from the lower classes and the working class in Imperial Rome, including some Roman soldiers, lacked the luxury of a well-equipped Roman kitchen.

    These individuals, often unable to afford the space or means for cooking at home, relied on street vendors and public eateries like "cauponae" and "tabernae."

    These establishments served simple fare such as bread, pancakes, and sausages – a stark contrast to the elaborate dishes found in a wealthy household.

    Roman cooking book

    Let's start with the oldest ancient Roman cookbook, “De re coquinaria” by Apicius.

    Who was Apicius is not too clear as there were many renowned gastronomers with this name in Ancient Rome.

    The one mostly referred to is Marcus Gavius Apicius, who lived between 80 BCE and 40 CE.

    He was an eccentric Roman patrician who spent all his fortune organizing luscious banquettes.

    When he realized he had no money left, he killed himself, preferring to die instead of lowering the level of his lifestyle.

    “De re coquinaria” is a collection of recipes that have been preserved, copied, and studied by our predecessors during all those centuries, and thanks to them, we now have the testimony of those recipes.

    The oldest copy is dated at the end of the 4th century, and even if it is not the original, we can be sure that most of the content is authentic.

    Apicius writing his recipe book

    Ancient Romans recipes

    “De re coquinaria” is divided into 10 books, each dedicated to different types of ingredients:

    1. Epimeles: the first book is about preserving fruits and vegetables, olives, and how to store vines. Best practice to store meat for a long time and how to recognize bad honey.
    2. Sarcoptes — minced meat: in this section, the recipes are very simple, mainly minced meat mixed with herbs and spices.
    3. Cepuros — vegetables: The third part was dedicated to vegetables, fruits, cheese, and pulses. These were the basis of Romans' meals. Apicius considered them healthy and very tasty.
    4. Pandecter — general: There are very different generic recipes: cakes, cooked fruits, sauces, and side dishes.
    5. Ospreon — Pulses: This book has many recipes about different pulses and their flours. Romans were very good bakers.
    bread remains found in Pompeii
    1. Aeropetes — birds, and poultry: Here, not only we found recipes with fresh chicken but also wild birds like ostriches, cranes, flamingos, peacocks, and parrots. Included in the book were the best sauces to go with each meat.
    2. Polyteles — gourmet: while this book was called gourmet, it represents the most disgusting ingredients for our times: sterile vaginas, dromedary calluses, rinds, pig and boar legs, goose liver, sow stern, loins, kidneys, hams. This is what the Romans would call delicacies.
    3. Tetrapus — animals: this book is dedicated to mammal meat, in particular wild boar, deer, chamois, young goat, lamb, piglet, pig, and hare.
    4. Thalassa — sea: these last two books are dedicated to seafood.
    5. Halieus — fish: The tenth book in particular talks about fish and sauces to go with their meat.
    Pig feet and cow stomach in a butcher display

    Looking at the recipes, I could hardly find one that could be served and eaten today.

    The ingredients they used and their method of preserving them are way off from our current taste.

    Nevertheless, I was surprised to find some similarities.

    a page from De Res cuquinaria
    Apicius Handschrift New York Academy of Medicine

    Roman ketchup: the Garum

    Garum was a salty fish sauce used in many recipes, and it was so common to find during the Roman period that it is not clear how it was made, as Apicius took its recipe for granted.

    It was a salty paste with a strong taste made with fish intestines, which were spiced and fermented.

    The taste must be horrendous for us now.

    Garum was for the wealthy, while the version for the poor was called Liquamen, which in current Italian means sewage.  

    That says it all!!!

    Today, we Italians use anchovies instead of these fermented fish sauces to flavor our dishes, particularly our salads.

    We preserve anchovies in salt and often use them to add flavor.

    Puntarelle alla Romana, for example, is a well-known Roman salad that uses a seasoning made with anchovies vinaigrette.

    Tapenade Ingredients

    Ingredients during the Roman Empire

    To learn more about the ingredients used during the Roman Empire, we can look at the samples of food remains found during the excavation of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

    The eruption of the Vesuvius volcano in 79 CE buried the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, preserving life as it was 2000 years ago.

    Volcanic ash and debris covered the entire valley under 33 feet/10 meters of earth, freezing in time for a regular day under the Roman Empire.

    The excavation uncovered so much information that experts could build back different aspects of a regular day.

    Ashes and pumice preserved not only houses and tools but also organic remains as they left a void in the mud after they decayed.

    Shapes of the dead bodies were made by injecting plaster into these voids, reproducing the appearance and expression of the people who died suffocated and submerged by ashes.

    Shapes of the dead bodies were made by injecting plaster into these voids

    Pompeii was a rich town with luxurious villas, theatres, spas, temples, shops, and even a brothel.

    Beautiful mosaics and frescoes throughout their buildings describe their lives.

    People were healthy with perfect teeth as they followed a typical Mediterranean diet rich in fruits, vegetables, fresh seafood, and no sugar.

    Ancient Romans did not have a sweet tooth

    affresco from Pompei villa

    Food remains found in Pompeii and Herculean

    As we know, wine production was already a well-known technique way before the Roman Empire, as well as the olive oil.

    They were stored in amphorae and transported by ships.

    The fertile land around the volcano Vesuvio had plenty of wineries and olive trees plantations.

    amphorae and body shapes found during the excavation of Pompeii

    Meals during the Roman Empire were rich in vegetables, herbs, dried fruits, and spices.

    In the photo below, you will see ancient Roman food remains of garlic, onion, olives, barley, pomegranate, pine nuts, millet, wheat, and chickpeas.

    Ancient roman food remains displayed in Pompeii

    Roman recipes in modern time

    Pulses were an important ingredient in their diet; archeologists found plenty of chickpeas, lentils, and fava/broad beans.

    The pulse recipe cooked over an open fire probably resembles how the Romans used to cook them.

    Simply boiled on a covered clay pot next to the fire.

    📋Easy Camping Meals (no fridge)
    Like the cowboy baked beans featured in the Spaghetti Western, pulses cooked over an open fire, are healthy and easy camping meals for a family. Whether you are in the wild of a camping site or in the warmth of your own fireplace, these slow-cooked creamy pulses will carry you in a Sergio Leone's movie, sitting right next to Clint Eastwood.
    Check out this recipe
    easy camping meals for family chickpeas cooked on a campfire

    In the photo below, some remains of a home kitchen in Pompeii.

    Pots and pans are very similar to what we use today.

    Food was cooked over an open fire.

    Kitchen in Pompeii

    They used flours made from pulses and probably the old recipe of pancakes made with chickpea flour.

    Farinata was already used during those times.

    📋Italian Chickpea Pancake (Farinata, Cecina, Panella, Socca)
    Chickpea flour pancakes are called Farinata in Liguria, Socca in the South of France, Cecina in Tuscany, and Pannella in Sicily. This vegan, gluten-free, eggless chickpea crepe is simply made with chickpeas flour, water, and olive oil cooked over a wood fire. It is an ancient recipe that goes back to the Roman Empire and is now street food in many Mediterranean countries.
    Check out this recipe
    Chickpea pancake plain and with rosmary cut in slices and served in a paper bag as street food

    The legend said that survivors from a shipwreck carrying chickpea flour discovered this delicacy as the flour mixed with the seawater dried and cooked on the rocks under the sun.

    Socca or Farinata: Chickpea Flour Pancakes

    Peas, artichokes, and, in particular, fava beans and cheese were important ingredients in Roman diets.

    In a pot found in Pompeii (represented in the picture below) there were remains of a soup made of broad beans and vegetables.

    food remains from Pompeii, a pot and a amphorae

    The recipe of the Italian Broad Beans minestra is very similar to this dish. It is not an authentic recipe from Apicius, but all the ingredients are there.

    📋 Fresh Italian Broad Beans Recipe (Fava Bean Minestra)
    More than recipes, these Spring starters are a ceremony to celebrate Spring. The fresh vegetables are piled in layers and covered with lettuce leaves to preserve the green colour of the produces.
    Check out this recipe
    broad beans minestra in a pot
    Broad beans, peas and artichokes hold on a spoon

    In their diet, we also find a lot of fruits and nuts.

    In the picture below you find remains of peach stones, dried figs, and walnuts.

    Nuts and figs remains

    Ancient roman bread

    Many bread remains were found in Pompeii, as its bread was renowned for its superb quality.

    On a wall was found the writing: “Viator Pompeis panem gustas, Nuceriae bibes”, meaning: "Traveler, eat the bread in Pompeii but drink the vine from Nocera".

    Many different types of bread were made: first quality, second quality, spelled bread, the not very refined one, the bread for the sailors, and finally, the one for the poor, which was hard and dry.

    Friselle are very similar to that:

    📋Homemade Friselle Pugliesi Recipe
    Friselle bread, a type of twice-baked bread, originates from Southern Italy and is known for its long shelf-life, making it a convenient choice for those traveling long distances. Traditionally enjoyed as a staple food during hard economic times, Friselle has now evolved into a popular snack in Italy. With its versatility, you can enjoy Friselle topped with Mediterranean mixtures like olives, tomatoes, and basil.
    Check out this recipe
    Friselle piled on a cutting board one topped with tomato, basil and red onion
    bread remains in Pompeii

    Many bakeries in Pompei were located on Via dell'Abbondanza (Abundance Street), the main street where most shops and restaurants are located.

    via dell'abbondanza with Eddie, my dog looking out

    Restaurants during the Roman Empire

    Along the via dell'Abbondanza (Abundance Street), we found many different types of restaurants: large, small, decorated, plain, takeaway, and opulent.

    The more basic fast-food type of restaurant was very basic, with a simple layout and design.

    They were front street rooms of private houses where food was served to the public.

    You can find out more about modern Italian street food in this article.

    fast food in Pompeii

    We also found more sophisticated restaurants decorated with Carrara marble and frescoes.

    Food was kept inside the Dolia, pots walled inside the counter.

    There were different sizes of Dolia depending on what type of food was stored.

    fancy restaurant in Pompei

    To check payments, small engraved circles were carved on the counter to measure the size of the coins.

    Very clever, indeed!

    Small engraved circles were carved on the counter to measure the size of the coins to check payments

    It is quite amazing how close to our current times was the cooking and eating habits of the ancient Romans.

    As their diet was healthy, mainly made of vegetables, fruits, bread, cheese, and seafood, I am sure I would have been happy to live during these ancient times.

    Mosaic Casa del Fauno featuring scallops

    Although I am not sure I would have gone to any of the Apicius banquets, not a fan of what he called "delicacy".

    Affresco villa in Pompei

    More historic facts

    To find out more about food in ancient Rome, you can read the article about Trajan's market: the first shopping mall in history.

    Moving forward in time you can find out more about the development of the Roman markets to the current time in the article: A Historic Walk Through The Charm Of Romans Market

    To find out more how Italian food tradition changed throughout history you can read the article: Italian food history and cultural influence.

    More history about Italian cuisine in the article: Traditional Italian Recipes By Region.

    Find my recommendations of authentic Italian cooking books translated into English in my Amazon shop section: Cooking Books

    view of Rome and the markets location

    Hope you find this article helpful, please if you have any questions, write them in the comments below and I will be happy to respond and help. For more information, you can visit the category: Italian food traditions. You can find delicious ideas if you FOLLOW ME on Facebook, YouTube, Pinterest and Instagram or sign up to my newsletter.

    More History

    • Tuscan map location and icons of key food
      Tuscan Cuisine: A Journey Through History
    • History of Italian food
      Italian Food History And Cultural Influences
    • Italian history that shaped the cuisine
      A History of Italian Cuisine: Exploring Regional Food Traditions
    • Campo dei fiori market stalls
      The Best Food Markets In Rome An Historic Walk

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    Comments

    1. Tomas Barba

      April 11, 2021 at 6:29 pm

      This was a fascinating article. I am a writer working on a series of book set during the Later Roman Empire. Articles such as yours allow me to bring ancient Rome alive for the reader.

      Thank you for your work.

      Reply
      • Laura

        April 11, 2021 at 6:59 pm

        Thank you so much for leaving this comment. I really appreciate hearing from my readers, especially if they share my same interests as you do. Please let me know more about your book. I am sure that who is interested in reading this article will be curious about it as well.

        Reply
    2. Célyne Gardère

      March 28, 2022 at 12:47 pm

      Laura, I loved your article. So interesting.

      Reply
      • Laura

        March 28, 2022 at 1:01 pm

        Thank you Celyne, I know someone is using it on Corsera.

        Reply

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    Laura Giunta Tobin

    Hi, I’m Laura. Welcome to my blog! While many talk about Italian food, I’ve lived it firsthand. Here, I share real Italian home cooking, just as it’s made in Italy. Won’t you join me?

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